How does Aurelius Augustine relate to Plato and Thomas Aquinas to Aristotle?

by Boyan Mak Mihaylov

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https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6257-1246

Abstract:

Boyan Mihaylov, How Does Aurelius Augustine Relate to Plato and Thomas Aquinas to Aristotle? History of Philosophy, Phillip McLoud. Sofia: Bulgarian Evangelical Theological Institute, 2009.

In this paper a research is made on the relationships between Augustine and Plato at one hand, and Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle on the other hand. Bu understanding the specific philosophical focus on each a conclusion is drawn how close the two theologians are to their philosophical roots.

Keywords:

Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Aurelius Augustine, Platonism, philosophy, theology

How does Aurelius Augustine relate to Plato and Thomas Aquinas to Aristotle?" At first glance, this short question seems to require such a short answer. But with a closer look at its content, the volume of our task increases significantly. It turns out that we need to compare the views of philosophers who lived in three different eras, but who have a strong influence on philosophy today.

First of all, we must place our study in the correct chronological framework. ¹ Aurelius Augustine is considered to be the philosopher who marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, and Thomas Aquinas is the most significant medieval thinker, so to speak, in the heart of the late Middle Ages.

Another important feature of our analysis is that Aurelius Augustine and Thomas Aquinas are also Christian theologians of the Western tradition, which of course brings their views very close, although they remain on both sides of the dialogue between Platonism and Aristotelianism. As theologians, Thomas and Augustine have much more in common than as philosophers. Here we will limit ourselves to the study of their philosophical systems, not to the theological aspect.

In our study, we will look for four relationships:

• Between the views of Plato and Aristotle

• Between Augustine and Plato, as a continuation of the Platonic tradition

• Between Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle, as a continuation of the Aristotle tradition

• Between Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, as respective representatives of Platonism and Aristotelianism

The Philosophical Dialogue between Plato and Aristotle²

By "philosophical dialogue" we will understand here the relationship of ideas as a basic category in philosophy

Plato's Philosophy

“Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good.” (Plato, The Parable of the Cave) ³

Plato's thought is vast and encompasses much of the world he explores. In his research, he starts from a basic metaphor and that is mathematics. Plato's main goal is "to reveal the eternal immutable forms, or ideas, which serve as the essence and ideal of all things." ⁴ According to him, there are four degrees of cognition: conjecture (or things that we presume to be true, but not necessarily), belief (about physical objects through our senses), generalization (in which we derive the general from the particular), and the universal concept (which he called Forms or Ideas). In thinking, one must go from the private to the universal, stepping out of the world of sensory objects into the world of universals and forms.⁵

According to Plato, ideas are eternal and exist in eternity, just as souls exist in eternity. Therefore, in contact with the sensory world, the soul perceives the essence of things because of the memory of its life in eternity. The more universal something is, the more real it is according to Plato, but it is also beyond our sensory experience. The goal of the philosopher is therefore to capture the universal Ideas. ⁶

Therefore, Plato is very concerned about the education of the whole person for self-control and realization. One of the main goals of education is to give knowledge of the good, because ignorance is evil. Therefore, everything that unrestrains the soul must be rejected as useful for learning.

Plato also associated the ideal society with the "external reflection of the harmoniously complete soul,"⁷ where everything is under the control of reason. Based on his theory of knowledge, he is able to derive the measure of an ideal society from harmoniously developed personalities.

The Philosophy of Aristotle

“It is the principles and causes of the things which are that we are seeking; and clearly of the things which are qua being.” (Aristotle, Met. 6.1025b) ⁸

Aristotle, as a student of Plato, well understood his philosophy and made his corrections in it, leading to the centuries-old dialogue between the two philosophical traditions, which have both great similarities and significant differences. Aristotle's main metaphor is the world of living organisms (or biology), from which he derives his philosophical ideas through observation.

According to Aristotle, Forms (or Ideas) exist, but not somewhere in the invisible world, but in the objects or things themselves. The substance of something is the unity between its form and matter. In the same way, body and soul are united as matter and form.

Unlike Plato, who emphasizes the universal and the constant, change is important to Aristotle. The world exists because it moves. According to Aristotle, the form of each object brings it from potential to actual existence, and the root cause of any movement is the Primary Driving Force, which is immovable and eternally existing. For Aristotle, every country in the world is equally important because it is a unity between form and matter. Through sensory perceptions we perceive matter and by induction we come from particular to general conclusions, and by deduction we arrive from general principles to their particular application. ⁹ In this way Aristotle became the father of modern science, laying the foundations of science on the necessary theoretical level.

According to Aristotle, an ideal prescription for an ideal society cannot be given, because the prescription would be different on the basis of the analysis of the cultural-geographical peculiarities of each nation. The careful scientist should study these features and draw up such prescriptions for social regulation that meet these conditions.

In terms of morality, Aristotle teaches that the most important thing is the individual good, "from which all things profit".¹⁰ According to him, there is no absolute good that we can find and follow, but what is good is yet to be discovered. ¹¹

If Plato can be said to be the founder of idealism, then Aristotle is the founder of empiricism, because he was the first to formulate extremely accurate methods for studying the object world (unity between form and matter) and classify the types of knowledge we can accumulate.

Aurelius Augustine (the Blessed) as a Continuation of the Tradition of Plato

“The highest good, than which there is no higher, is God, and consequently He is unchangeable good, hence truly eternal and truly immortal. All other good things are only from Him, not of Him.” (St. Augustine of Hippo, On the Nature of Good¹²)

Aurelius Augustine (354-430) developed rapidly as a thinker who successively went through Manichaeism, Neo-Platonism, and eventually became a Christian. As a Christian, Augustine's main emphasis is no longer on man, but on God. With the above quote begins the polemical work "On the Nature of Good" in a dispute with the Manichaeans in which we see one of the most important statements of Augustine - God is the supreme good. This philosophical statement became the basis of all medieval philosophy. If for Plato the soul is essential, then for Augustine the soul's knowledge of God and the soul's connection with Him are essential. If until Augustine man was the measure of all things in philosophy, then from Augustine onwards God became the measure of all things. As a result, Platonism underwent a significant change in Augustine.

Augustine's works are extremely polemical, and the issues he discusses are related to the defense of the Christian faith before the Neoplatonists, Manichaeans, Pelagians and Donatists. The most important topics that Augustine writes about are the relationship between knowledge and faith, the natural origin of evil, free will, and biblical revelation. Augustine himself tells a lot about his soul in "Confessions", where he again argues with the Manichaeans. ¹³

Augustine pays great attention to the grace and mercy of God. According to him (as well as according to Protestantism later) man is completely separated due to his disobedience from God and without God's grace he could not be in a renewed relationship with God. This view of Augustine had a great influence on his philosophy of history, as well as on the Reformation in Europe.

God's City against the Earthly City

The City of God (413 to 426) was written in response to pagan accusations by pagan Romans that Christians were responsible for the fall of Rome. According to Augustine, the rise of Rome was the work of God's providence and providence. Augustine criticizes the Platonists for seeking the link between man and God through the worship of demons, while Christians have this link in the person of Jesus Christ, who is both God and man.

In "The City of God" Augustine builds his philosophy of history as a struggle between the two "cities" - God's and man's. They are antitheses to each other. The human race gradually degrades and becomes rebellious against God in its disobedience, which results in spiritual and physical death. This "city" or kind of arrangement follows the carnal way of life and the lies of Satan, while God's "city" is made up of people who love God and seek Him. To these two types of societies Augustine attributes two different types of love - the love of the carnal way of life and the love of God.

Unlike God's city, the earthly city is characterized by its constant conflict because the human race has ceased to belong to God as an Absolute Being. The earthly city is characterized by wars, conflicts and bloodshed. According to Augustine, the church is the city of God, which is destined to rule the earth until Christ returns a second time. The church, however, must spread its influence through the Spirit, not through some earthly (secular) means. ¹⁴

If the city of God is the church, then the earthly city is the secular state. Augustine lived in the period of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and clearly saw that the state itself was transitional. He therefore teaches that it is transitory as long as the church is eternal. ¹⁵ In this way he begins the Roman Catholic understanding of the earthly government of the church as the representative of God.

It is here that Augustine's Platonism is evident - he seeks to distance himself from the earthly and the "worldly" in order to seek union with God by devoting himself to teaching the people the Christian virtues. That is why he founded a monastic order. Unlike the non-Christian Platonists, however, we see in Augustine a clear realization that philosophy alone cannot bring man closer to God. Philosophers fail in their search because they seek the temporary, not the eternal, and thus remain within the reach of the "earthly city" with their reasoning. Augustine greatly valued pagan philosophers because they helped him come to Christ, but once he believed in Christ, he saw their limitations and uselessness in their relationship with God.

So to what extent is Augustine a Platonist? We could say that only half, because he rejects the basic religious postulates and Platonism, accepting Christianity. At the same time, with his desire to perfect the soul, the desire for virtue, the desire to distance oneself from the world and the sins of the world, his desire to enlighten believers and overthrow the Gentiles, Augustine largely followed the approach of Socrates and Plato. With his philosophy and theology, Augustine became one of the main pillars of Western medieval philosophy and theology.

Thomas Aquinas as a Continuation of the Tradition of Aristotle

“The point of studying philosophy is not to know what others have thought, but to know the truth about things.” (Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle, About the Heaven and the World, I, 22) ¹⁶

From the time of Augustine to the time of Thomas Aquinas stretch nine centuries, which are not particularly remarkable with the development of Western philosophical thought except for some prominent figures (Boethius, Anselm of Canterbury, Pierre Abelard, Moses Maimonides and Bonaventure, etc.). , but are remarkable with the emergence of various monastic orders.

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224 - 1274) was one of the most influential philosophers until the time of the Reformation, and it can be said that the philosophical and theological system of Thomas dominated the Western world for about three centuries. Like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, he was a monk, a follower of the Dominican order, who vowed poverty and living a gospel-oriented life.

Thomas lives in a time of turmoil, as does Augustine, but they are of a different nature. At the time, there was a division at the University of Paris between the Faculty of Theology and the Faculty of Liberal Arts, with some professors raising serious objections to some of the dogmas of the Catholic Church. Many of Thomas's works are written in a polemical style for this reason. There were constant conflicts between the emperor and the pope, as well as a constant threat from the Muslims, who had already invaded Europe at that time. The church at that time was strong as an institution, but there were great disturbances and opposition. ¹⁷

During this historical period, the interest of the Western world in Greek philosophy was significant - especially in Aristotle, who is considered to be the most important philosopher of the ancient philosophers. Thomas often speaks of Aristotle as the "Philosopher." At that time there were also mystics who were Platonists, but they were a minority.

The directions in which Thomas develops his philosophy are extremely many. It is difficult to cover all, so here we give the most important according to Albert Zimmerman:

• The relationship between faith and knowledge.

• The sciences and their division.

• Main characteristics of the doctrine of Being.

• Knowledge.

• For the person;

• For human activity. ¹⁸

Unlike Augustine, Thomas walks his path from the side of faith towards an understanding of philosophy. In Thomas we find the believer who feels the need to understand his faith and to be able to argue it clearly and convincingly enough. We also find Christian scholars who want to understand the whole world in the light of God, the Creator of all things. For Thomas, faith is a revelation from God, which we at first accept with confidence, and which is yet to be revealed to reason and understood by reason, so as to remove any contradiction between the two that originally existed. While for Augustine the path is from philosophical knowledge to faith and communion with God, for Thomas the path is rather from Divine revelation to the understanding of the world by the methods of philosophy. ¹⁹

As a follower of Aristotle and Thomas, he seeks not a deep mystical communion of the soul with God, but an understanding of the world around us and a change in this world. This, of course, he does, having both his personal faith and Catholic theology, unlike Aristotle, who sees God only as a motionless eternal Engine, which is the root cause of every movement. Thomas begins his reflections where Aristotle stops.

According to Thomas Aquinas, God is the root cause of absolutely everything, but there is one essential difference from Aristotle. According to Thomas, all individual beings receive from God the opportunity to "be" and God, as Existence itself, gives other beings the opportunity to exist. "God is a being in his essence ... all other beings are like that through their participation," he says. This principle of his is fundamental to his entire philosophical system and explains to a great extent his further conclusions. ²⁰

Medieval scholars call the ideas or forms (of Plato) universals. According to Thomas, universals come into existence first in the consciousness of God. They exist in things in the form of form and principle of individuality, which rules the unformed matter. The unity between matter (hile) and form (morphe) is substance. ²¹

Apart from things, however, universals exist separately from things in the form of concepts that are comprehensible to the mind of the knowing man (which is like a slight deviation towards Plato ...) In the act of creation, God realizes all the possibilities that can lead to real individual things. Therefore, everything that happens as created by God is good, which is in harmony with Augustine's idea of ​​the goodness of the order created by God, and evil is somehow a deviation and has only a parasitic existence. ²²

God, as the Primordial driving force, brings things from the potential to the actual through the action of his good will. Everything that exists is therefore good and is part of the Divine goodness. When a person understands the world and understands its arrangement, he understands more and more God's goodness and purpose. This leads to the rejection of the dualistic notion in Platonism of the division between form and matter.

Because of these fundamental principles, there is a very close connection between the world and God. Everything that is created is worth studying, because it speaks of its Creator. Thomas' philosophy makes everything created a special value. The sciences have their place in God's plan for the world, man, and his activities. Therefore, the philosophy of Thomas, as well as that of Aristotle, acquires an encyclopedic character. Unlike Augustine's view, which we can call pessimistic, Thomas's is optimistic about man's ability to know God.

Thomas, like his teacher Albert the Great, tried to create a generalized doctrine of the world that would systematize and incorporate every piece of knowledge that existed at the time. He did this in his work Summa Theologiae, which is a combination of systematic theology and philosophy.

Thomas is not the ultimate follower of Aristotle and does not accept Aristotle as an infallible authority. Even he himself fought against the Arab followers of Aristotle (such as Averoes - 1126 - 1198). There are other colleagues of his who come from purely secular positions and from whom Thomas distances himself. Summa Contra Gentiles is a systematic exposition of Thomas' positions against his non-Christian opponents and followers of Aristotle. ²³ He devotes himself not to honor any authority, but to seek the truth about things. Just as Augustine was not a hundred percent follower of Plato, so Thomas was not a hundred percent follower of Aristotle. Even in some parts of Thomas's philosophy there is a slight influence of the Platonic tradition and of Western Christian mysticism.

Final Analysis

In our introduction, we talked about the four relationships we set out to explore: - between Plato and Aristotle, between Augustine and Plato, between Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle, between Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. It turns out that the connection between the philosophies of the four philosophers is far from simple. With the present exposition we have not exhausted our task, but it is still possible to reach certain conclusions.

Aurelius Augustine began his philosophical search from pagan platonic (and more precisely neo-Platonic) positions in order to reject extreme Platonism and rather Christianize Platonism. In his theology, Augustine laid the foundation of all Western theology, which developed in the Middle Ages and reached Thomas Aquinas. For his part, Thomas Aquinas started from the Western theological (theological) tradition and began his philosophical quest on the side of Aristotelianism, while rejecting all pagan ideas of Aristotelianism in the light of Western theology.

We can try to graphically represent the relationship between the views of the four. In the horizontal direction we compare the dialogue between Plato and Aristotle in terms of forms and matter, and in the vertical direction we compare the direction of a given philosophy to the relationship with God.

Due to the common theological framework of Augustine and Thomas, their views are far closer than those of Plato and Aristotle. On the other hand, neither Plato nor Aristotle accept God as a personal being to whom we humans are personally responsible. For Plato, God is relatively inaccessible somewhere in the spirit world, attainable by immersing oneself in the soul and practicing a virtuous life, but not by reason, while for Aristotle God is rather the Engine that drives everything else, but not necessarily the Personal.

Neither Augustine nor Thomas can remain faithful followers of their philosophical traditions, because Christian faith and theology require a significant revision of classical philosophies. In this respect, Thomas Aquinas seems to remain a little closer to Aristotle and his teachings than Augustine did to Platonism.

From the time of Augustine to the time of Thomas Aquinas, the Western world was dominated by Platonism, with the main emphasis on man's relationship with God in prayerful communion and renunciation of the material. Matter is seen as something lower than spirit. Eastern Europe is much closer to Platonism and especially neo-Platonism than Western Europe. Yet even under Augustine we observe a desire for activity in the material world, in which, according to Augustine, God placed the church as the city of God. The Eastern European tradition is becoming more neo-Platonist and eschatologically oriented than the Western one. Augustine's great contribution lay in his correct reassessment of Platonism and in directing a whole generation of people to faith in God.

The rediscovery of Aristotle's work pushed the pendulum to Aristotelianism in the west (but not in the east in Europe), which greatly contributed to the development of modern science and laid the foundation of the modern system of education and democracy. Thanks to Thomas Aquinas, Western Christian philosophy remained very strong for the next three centuries. Although religiously the Reformation pushed the pendulum toward Augustine, philosophically the West remained under the influence of Aristotelianism until the first scientific revolution. It can be said that Thomas Aquinas created a much more comprehensive philosophy than Augustine. His strength lies in his ability to make high-ranking generalizations, something that philosophers before him failed to do, with the exception of classical Greek philosophy. We should look at Thomas Aquinas not just as a representative of Aristotelianism, but rather as someone who started with Aristotelianism to further develop it.

The dialogue between Plato and Aristotle continues today, with many new variants and interpretations of the two classical philosophers. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas were the two men who gave a significant impetus to Western thought and science. Unfortunately, in the later history of philosophy, we do not see any significant Christian philosophers who have such a strong influence on the Western world. This should make Christians wonder whether their theology does not remain just a private science that only characterizes their relationship with God and has no more general consequences. In the words of Thomas Aquinas, theology is the "queen of science," but it can remain queen only if it has to do with the philosophical search for man in our day - an example left to us by Augustine and Thomas that is worth following.

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Translated from Bulgarian to English, April 4, 2021

Source of original paper in Bulgarian: Михайлов, Боян. Как се съотнася Аврелий Августин към Платон и Тома Аквински към Аристотел? In: Academia.edu, https://www.academia.edu/45499601/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%B5_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%BC_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB

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Where an English edition is available it is given after the Bulgarian edition. Where such is not available, in brackets is given a transliteration of the author in Latin script and a translation of the title in English together with the city, publisher and year of publishing. All page numbers are according to Bulgarian editions.

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